New fathers who faced economic hardships remained deeply connected to their children despite negative stereotypes, according to a new study.

The men found support from their families and community programs, but the societal barriers often rendered them invisible, forcing them to fight for recognition not just as parents, but as individuals.

The study appeared in the Infant Mental Health Journal.

Fathers today are significantly more involved in their young children’s lives than they were several decades ago. This has benefited the child’s development and mothers’ health before and after delivery, the research indicated. But for some men, navigating their emotions—such as depression and happiness—and roles as fathers have been challenging, said study co-author Shawna Lee, professor of social work at the University of Michigan.

Researchers at U-M, Ohio State University and Northeastern University looked at the feelings and experiences of 24 racially diverse, low-income dads in the U.S. during pregnancy, after their babies were born, and in early childhood.

The results indicated the men reported both positive emotions (e.g., joy, happiness) and negative emotions (e.g., sadness, disappointment) across the perinatal and early childhood periods. Fathers also reported feeling encouraged by their social support networks (e.g., family members, fatherhood program staff, other fathers in the community) that further aid their parenting but felt marginalized by systematic barriers (e.g., negative stereotypes and biased images, high incarceration rates of Black fathers).

“In particular, positive experiences and emotions of fatherhood need to be more readily reflected in the images and narratives of media, as well as other areas of American society (e.g., government, academia, health services),” said lead author Joyce Lee, OSU assistant professor of social work.

Another finding showed that the fathers’ negative emotions were associated with positive behavioral intentions, such as resolving to stay involved in their children’s lives and changing behaviors to do right by their children. Fathers also used various creative coping strategies for emotion regulation, she said.

In addition, the researchers point to the importance of health care professionals who come in contact with fathers. They may be in ideal positions to engage in father-inclusive practices, such as inviting expectant dads to share their feelings and wishes around childbirth and more.

Study co-authors included Olivia Chang, Muzi Lin and Brenda Volling of U-M, and Analia Albuja of Northeastern.